In Memoriam Carla Sabotta

Founding ISEC member and wife of founding ISEC director Bryan Laubscher

For many years Carla and Bryan navigated the sea of life together. A very kind, smart, strong, loving Penelope, she immensely enriched the endeavours of her Odysseus in business, science, and private life, a homing beacon and anchor. She was fundamental to the essential get-together in Redmond at the outset of launching ISEC and in weaving with Bryan on new strong fabrics.

When a troublesome storm rocked their ship ten years ago, they cleared it at first, but Scylla struck on June 8th, 2024, taking Carla surprisingly and early from us. She will be missed by Bryan beyond words and at ISEC.

Editor's  Note

The 2024 Space Elevator Conference (SEC) has concluded, and my plan was to publish a review of the conference in this newsletter, but that is not going to happen, because...

We are putting together a Special Edition of the newsletter dedicated solely to the SEC so that there will be enough room for all of the summaries and photos!

I hope you are as excited to hear about the SEC as we are to tell you about it!

Sandee Schaeffer
Newsletter Editor

President's Corner

by Dennis Wright

Space elevators and ISEC have been getting some exposure lately. For listeners of National Public Radio, there was a 17-minute segment on Science Friday with Ira Flatow. In it, I was interviewed about what space elevators are, how they work, and the materials needed to build them. I was also happy to de-bunk the depiction of a space elevator disaster in the Foundation television series. If you missed the original airing of the interview, it’s available on podcast:

https://www.sciencefriday.com/segments/space-elevator-possibility/

For the investors among you who follow Fortune magazine, there is an article by Dr. Carolyn Barber in which she interviewed Brad Edwards, Stephen Cohen, and me about the prospects for space elevators. Experts in orbital mechanics will note a problem with the title, but the article is upbeat and optimistic. I spent an hour talking with Carolyn and she is definitely an enthusiast. You can read the article at:

https://fortune.com/2024/09/04/astronauts-stuck-space-solution-elevator-science-tech/

Last but not least, we just completed the 2024 ISEC Conference. This was our second consecutive conference in Chicago. The weather was great, and we had an outstanding view of Lake Michigan and the city from the 38th floor of the Aon building. Thanks go to Slalom Consulting for allowing us to use their spaces!

Two days of talks, workshops, and panel discussions covered such topics as space infrastructure, simulations, tether deployment, climber propulsion, and how to sell the idea of a space elevator. We also heard the results of a survey on who would be willing to ride a space elevator and had a panel discussion on scientists and engineers working with science fiction authors featuring Douglas Phillips, author of the Quantum Space series.

An enthusiastic audience was totally engaged with the speakers and went away with new ideas and hopefully desires to return for ISEC 2025.

We will cover the conference fully in a special edition of the newsletter, scheduled to appear later this month. Watch this space!

Chief Architect’s Note #51

by Pete Swan, ISEC Chief Architect

Why We Must Develop Space Elevators

As a Systems Architect looking at the Engineering Development Process, the first active task is to identify and lay out needs and requirements. The basis for that discussion centers around: Why Space Elevators? As I just started as the ISEC Chief Architect, I initiated this discussion during my briefing at the recent ISEC Space Elevator Conference in Chicago 2024. The discussions were, as expected, lively. A first step is we need a vision which helps explain, “Why the customer needs Space Elevators” vs. other transportation capabilities. The vision has been developed over the last 20 years and resulted in:

ISEC’s Vision: Space Elevators are the Green Road to Space while they enable humanity's most important missions by moving massive tonnage to GEO and beyond. They accomplish this safely, routinely, efficiently, inexpensively, and daily, while remaining environmentally neutral.

The Creative Triangle chart illustrates how we start with a vision and explains how we see customer needs and how that leads to a natural set of statements: “Customer X needs this benefit,” etc. That first chart shows a significant image of an overall architecture of a mega-project with issues identified through an analysis of systems engineering trades1. At the conference, I started with the benefits shown in the second chart to initiate an understanding of customer needs. A statement to the “Customer” would be something similar to:

“Your Need: Be the next dominant force in the movement off planet with Modern-Day Space Elevators for full-service delivery to GEO and beyond. The benefits of developing permanent transportation infrastructures dominating the access to space are many and varied: cost, efficient, environmentally neutral, massive movement, and daily operations similar to a bridge or train tracks.”

A Space Elevator at Full Operational Capacity (FOC) will result in these benefits of permanent infrastructure:

+ Daily and Routine--similar to bridge operations

+ Massive logistics--170,000 tonnes per year

+ Extreme Velocity -- 7.76 Km/sec at 100,000 Km altitude

+ Environmental Impact -- The Green Road to Space

+ Delivery Efficiency -- 70% liftoff mass to customer

+ Reusable Mass -- 100% (70% payload, 30% climber)

+ Safety -- Permanent Infrastructure with built-in redundancy

+ Assemble at Apex Anchor -- Build, refuel, repair, assemble S/c

+ Very low cost -- Permanent infrastructure costs less

+ Return on Investment -- Long term Immense similar to bridges

With these types of statements -- based upon customers’ needs -- they can understand the strengths of Space Elevators that will dominate transportation off planet in the very near future.

Peter Swan, Ph.D. FBIS, FAIAA, MIAA

References:

1. Swan, P., C. Swan, “Space Elevator Systems Architecture,” lulu.com, 2007.

ISEC Summer Intern Program - Transfer of Leadership

We have had a summer intern program continuously since 2016. This program has excited students from around the world in the arena of future space transportation and all its associated aspects. The research topics were across the board and accomplished to develop new knowledge and invigorate students. Today, I saw the below quote and thought it was perfect for our transfer of responsibility from myself to Paul Phister. Paul’s combination of academic [Ph.D.] and project development [P.E.] is perfect for stimulating students about our curious world of space elevators and the revolution towards permanent space transportation infrastructure. Good Luck Paul! 

Pete 

“Research is a cornerstone of the student learning cycle, especially during the school journey. It fosters critical thinking, curiosity, and a deeper understanding of the world around us. By engaging in research, students not only gain knowledge but also develop essential skills like problem-solving, analysis, and creativity. These experiences prepare them for future challenges and instill a lifelong passion for learning. Encouraging students to explore, question, and investigate is key to nurturing the innovators and leaders of tomorrow. Let's empower our students to dive into research and unlock their full potential!” Arpit Dugar, Founder of Lab of the Future. 24 Aug 2024.

Space Elevator Academic Challenges -- 2025 

Can you Imagine? And then--contribute to the future of humanity with great ideas developed from recent discoveries? When we think about great achievements of the past, many come to mind, such as the Pyramids, canals, or airplanes. We need to dream big and develop concepts and ideas that will help save the planet and enable us to move toward the Moon and Mars. How about dreaming of engineering projects enabling us to provide the Green Road to Space while moving off-planet on an efficient permanent infrastructure “tossing” payloads towards exotic destinations? Naturally, in delivering the greatest engineering project in all of human history, many questions must first be answered. What is a Space Elevator Transportation System? Planetary defense, space-based solar power, planetary shade systems, access to rare minerals, fusion research, human communities off-Earth, spacecraft advances, in-space construction, and manufacturing--ALL need heavy lift. Imagine an advanced lift system that moves not the 20 tonnes of payload to GEO of current launchers, or the 50 tonnes to GEO of advanced Falcon Heavy launches, but a permanent space access infrastructure capable of moving 170,000 tonnes to GEO and beyond every year, and with no atmospheric pollution. Imagine this making it possible to provide clean, abundant energy. Yes, all of that can become possible by building and operating one or even multiple Space Elevators as permanent transportation systems of the near future--doing for us what rockets cannot! 

Two Challenges Await You: Naturally, in delivering the greatest engineering project in all of human history, many questions must first be answered. YOU and YOUR TEAM can help us answer them. They are:

HIGH SCHOOL:  

Development of a Settlement on the Space Elevator’s Earth Apex Anchor

The first challenge, which is being offered to High School students, is to develop and design an “intermediate space settlement” on the Space Elevator’s Apex Anchor to house over 10,000 individuals. This will act as a “waystation” for missions to the Cosmos. You will need to consider what the design, missions, structure, organization, architecture, life support, etc., would be like at such a waystation. How big would it need to be? What would be the optimal size? How will it take advantage of the massive lift capabilities of the Space Elevator providing a Green Road to Space?

UNIVERSITY: 

Development of a Space Settlement at the Earth-Moon L5 Point--Utilizing Earth’s Space Elevator

The second challenge, which is being offered to University Students, focuses on the development and plan for the Space Elevator to support the construction and logistical requirements for a 10,000-to-140,000-person space settlement at the Earth-Moon L5 point utilizing Earth’s Apex Anchor. Could we build a community at the Earth-Moon L5 point? You will need to consider the size and scope of the project. What would the architecture, structure, life support, and activities look like? How could construction and logistical support be facilitated using a space elevator? What would be your logistics and transportation plan from Earth’s Apex Anchor? You will need to develop an operational concept to build and sustain an Earth-Moon L5 community. What would be the role of a space elevator in building and supporting this effort? How will you take advantage of the massive lift capabilities of the Space Elevator providing a Green Road to Space?

Submission Process and Timeline:

1. Announcement of Space Elevator Academic Challenge 2025--01 September 2024

2. Paper submissions --01 January 2025

+ Finalist selection, notification (top 10 each challenge)--15 January 2025

3. Finalists’ audio/video submission--15 February 2025

+ Final Selections (top 3 of each challenge)--01 March 2025

4. Invitations to attend NSS Conference (High School)--19-22 June 2025

5. Invitations to attend Space Settlement Conference (University)--Nov 2025

Evaluation Criteria: https://www.isec.org/s/ISEC-Academic-Challenge-2025-Evaluation-Criteria.pdf

Questions? Write to spaceelevatorchallenge@isec.org

NSS logo

New Speakers Bureau for ISEC

Hello fans of the space elevator! My name is Larry Bartoszek, and I was recently elected vice president of ISEC. One of the things I would like to start as VP is a speakers bureau for ISEC. This is an invitation to all of our members and readers to contact me at larry.bartoszek@isec.org and let me know if you are interested in giving talks focused on the space elevator to groups in your area that might be interested in hearing about the SE. We will have virtual "auditions" for anyone interested, and we can provide a starter deck of slides if you need them. To see an example of the kind of speakers bureau I'm talking about, check out https://nss.org/space-ambassadors/ to see the National Space Society Space Ambassadors page. I am a space ambassador also. Being a speaker isn't for everyone, but if you have a passion for the space elevator and are interested in speaking to audiences that range from elementary school kids to lifelong learners, there is always room for more speakers. Getting the word out about the state of the space elevator and how individuals can help with its development will increase the number of brains thinking about the space elevator and spread awareness.  You might inspire someone to make the kind of technological breakthroughs we need for the elevator.

ISEC is an all-volunteer organization, and it depends on all of us to contribute to the mission of ISEC.  Being a speaker is only one part.  I got involved in ISEC because I read Brad Edwards' book on the Space Elevator back in 2003. I am a mechanical engineer, and the book inspired me to do conceptual designs for climbers for the space elevator using my experience and background. If you find yourself with some "free time" (whatever that is,) and are interested in some aspect of the space elevator, let any of us on the Board know and we will connect you with other like-minded people.

ISEC runs studies on various elevator related topics every year. We're currently running one on how to deliver power to the climbers on the elevator. There are so many things that could be worked on by interested members! I'm looking forward to hearing from interested speakers or elevator designers. Thank you for your time!

Larry

Solar System Space Elevators

by Peter Robinson

Part 4a: Mars - Introduction

This is the first part of the fourth article of a series based on the “Solar System Space Elevators” presentation given at a British Interplanetary Society Space Elevator Symposium in 2017.

Earlier parts of this series covered Mercury, Venus, the asteroids, and the Moon. Here, I discuss Space Elevators on Mars. 

Important background details include Mars gravity and rotation period, combining to yield the key parameter that would define a surface-to-space Mars Space Elevator: the Areostationary Mars Orbit (AMO) altitude. This is the equivalent to Earth’s Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) altitude.

Values that define the AMO are as follows:

- Mars Gravitational Parameter = 4.2828372E+13 m3/sec2

- Surface gravity = 0.366 g

- Mean Mars equatorial radius = 3396.2 km

- Mars angular velocity = 7.088236E-05 rads/sec (sidereal day = 88642.44 secs = 24.6229 hrs)

Yielding…

- AMO altitude = 17031.45 km

The lower surface gravity and lower synchronous altitudes combine to make a Mars Space Elevator a less challenging system than the Earth, allowing a lower tether length and a less strong tether material. That said, two major complications are the moons Phobos and Deimos in near-equatorial orbits. Key parameters are summarised in the graphic below, full details can be found in [1].

Figure 1: Phobos and Deimos Summary. Image Credit: Martin Lades

Space Elevators could be attached to either of the two moons, in addition to a standard ‘centrifugal-type’ elevator attached to Mars itself, but readers should compare the moon altitudes with the AMO altitude of 17031 km.

Multiple tether/elevator concepts have been described in earlier studies, some of which I will discuss here.

1. CONCEPTS

1.1 ‘Omaha Trail’

This concept was described in the February 2018 ISEC newsletter [2] by ISEC board member Martin Lades, written in conjunction with the ‘Lake Matthews Team’ (LMT) [3]. The newsletter article contains a detailed description of an operations base on Deimos associated with tethers from Deimos both towards Mars (L1-type) and out from Mars (L2-type, centrifugal), and a ‘Deimos Rail Launcher’.

The concept also includes a Mars Space Elevator terminating at an Apex Anchor just below Deimos orbit, with a ‘Mars Port’ located some distance from the Mars equator to enable passive avoidance of Phobos, as shown in the following Figures extracted from Martin’s IAC2018 presentation.

Figure 2: Part of image summarising Omaha Trail concept. Credit: Martin Lades, LMT

Figure 3: Details of Mars tether with non-equatorial ground connection. Credit: Martin Lades, LMT

Operationally the Deimos L2 tether would facilitate cargo transfer to/from Earth and elsewhere, while the L1 tether would primarily be used to lower material to the Mars Elevator. The Mars Elevator is described as ‘down’ only, requiring braking using a climber/rappeller system.

Note, the above is a gross simplification of Martin’s work. Readers are encouraged to follow the reference hyperlinks to see the complete graphics and read more.

Comment: the radical LMT Mars Terraforming concept does not appear to be supported by major Mars advocacy organisations [4]. The proposed asteroid deflection into the Mars surface is likely to be highly contentious and is not advocated by either myself or (as far as I know) by ISEC, but further discussion is outside the scope of this article.

1.2 Phobos Suspended Elevators: Weinstein Concept

Space Elevators extending from Phobos and Deimos have been described many times, for example by Penzo in 1984 [5], but Phobos elevators are perhaps best covered in the 2003 NASA paper “Space Colonization Using Space-Elevators from Phobos” by Leonard Weinstein [6]. In summary:

- The lower L1-Type Elevator would extend through the Phobos L1 point to an altitude just above the Mars atmosphere, enabling raising of material from Mars to Phobos after a railgun launch and rocket-assisted rendezvous just above the Mars atmosphere. Interestingly the tether itself is comprised of a series of 100km conveyor belts, with motors and power systems at each 100km node, see Figure 4 below.

- The upper L2 Centrifugal Elevator would further raise material for a high-altitude release to interplanetary destinations, much as is being proposed for the Earth Elevator Apex Anchor.

Figure 4: Phobos Elevator Schematics, Credit NASA / Weinstein

This NASA proposal suggested using carbon nanotube (CNT) tethers manufactured on Phobos, but Graphene Super Laminate (GSL) material could equally be used. The conveyor-belt approach avoids the technical challenges of a wheeled climber and allows for simultaneous two-way cargo journeys: details such as the 100km conveyor length would of course be subject to design review and will depend on tether material properties and other factors.

The downward journey of material to the Mars surface is described by the NASA paper as being by aerobraking and paraglider descent, not via the elevator. The lower end of the tether would be travelling at some 1920 km/hr (ref Fig 1), meaning that cargo released from the tether would still need some form of descent vehicle.

1.3 Mars Elevator: Long

Another configuration of Mars Elevator is a simple long tether from the Mars surface to well beyond the orbit of Deimos, as described (for example) on the Mars Society ‘Marspedia’ website [7].

The technical analysis in this article is based on equations from the 2006 paper by Aravind “The physics of the space elevator” [8], though all calculations for Mars appear to have been undertaken by the anonymous webpage author. The conclusions are based on a tapered tether using CNT material and yield a tether length of 69000 km, but this appears to be without any additional Apex Anchor mass. A different length would be derived using a different tether taper or material (e.g. GSL), and if an Apex Anchor was required for dynamic stability or other reasons. A length of 60,000km is visualised in Figure 5 below.

Figure 5: scale view of Mars and a ‘Long’ Elevator. Credit: Wikipedia and P. Robinson

The primary reason for maximising the tether length is to facilitate interplanetary cargo transfer, minimising the required delta-V required for incoming spacecraft to berth or dock with the tether, although velocity corrections would usually be needed to ensure the approach is correctly timed, at the correct velocity and in the plane of the Mars equator. The cargo (or passengers) would then have to embark on the lengthy journey (2 weeks at 200 km/hr) to the Mars surface on a climber either carried on the spacecraft or waiting on the tether.

This concept would also enable the release of spacecraft from the Apex to interplanetary destinations, again reducing the required delta-V for the journey, but the logistics challenges are significant. For example, the climber would need the durability and reliability to complete the two-way journey of over 120,000 km at considerable speed and would need to be configured for both ascent (requiring input power) and descent (requiring braking and power rejection). Power levels and traction requirements are considerably less than that needed for an Earth Elevator. See [8] for a discussion of the issues surrounding ‘descending’ climbers.

This concept also requires avoidance of Deimos, and this cannot practically be achieved by locating the Mars attachment point away from the equator. Active dynamic avoidance would be required, but this should not be a major issue as dynamic control of any Space Elevator tether is always essential.

The Marspedia webpage references the ‘Mars’ trilogy of science fiction novels by Kim Stanley Robinson: the first of these [9] describes a Mars Elevator with dynamic control, with the close high-speed passage of Phobos by the tether becoming a tourist attraction.

Also mentioned in the Marspedia page is the option for arriving spacecraft to simply enter the Mars atmosphere with little course correction, then using aerobraking and rocket propulsion to land on the Mars surface. It is speculated that this might require less fuel than the Apex Rendezvous option, but this would depend on detailed spacecraft performance capabilities.

This concludes ‘Part 1’ of this article on Mars Space Elevators. Part 2 will explore the ‘short’ Mars Elevator variant (with Apex Anchor below Deimos) in more detail, with results of my own analysis and conclusions on Mars Elevators in general.

The above represents my personal views, I am sure the Newsletter Editor would welcome articles from other Mars Elevator advocates.

Peter Robinson

REFERENCES

[1] “Martian satellite orbits and ephemerides”, Jacobson & Lainey, 2014: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S003206331300144X

[2] https://www.isec.org/space-elevator-newsletter-2018-february 

[3] - Lake Matthews Team website : https://www.lakematthew.com/

- “Efficient Martian Settlement with the Mars Terraformer Transfer (MATT) and the Omaha Trail” Gary Stewart, 2021 : https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781119761990.ch4

- “Mars Lift Update”, Martin Lades IAC2018 Paper IAC-18,D4,3,17,x43465 : https://iafastro.directory/iac/archive/browse/IAC-18/D4/3/43465
- “Omaha Trail to Lake Matthew”, ISEC Conference 2017, Gary Stewart (Lake Matthew Team) & Martin Lades

- ISEC Director & European Liaison : Martin Lades martin.lades@isec.org

- LMT Lead : Gary Stewart GStewartResearch@gmail.com 

[4] Mars Advocacy Organisations:

- The Mars Society: https://www.marssociety.org/ 

- The Mars Foundation: https://www.marsfoundation.org/

[5] Penzo, P.A., AAS, Science and Technology Series, 62, 445-465, 1984

[6] “Space Colonization Using Space-Elevators from Phobos”, Leonard M Weinstein, 2003: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20030065879 

[7] Marspedia Space Elevator page: https://marspedia.org/Space_elevator 

[8] “The Space Elevator Payload Journey Beyond GEO: Climber Concept and Options.”, P. Robinson, IAC2023 paper IAC-23,D4,3,11,x76283: https://www.isec.org/s/ISEC-2023-IAC-space-elevator-payloads-beyond-GEO-paper.pdf 

[9] “Red Mars” novel by Kim Stanley Robinson, September 1972, ISBN 0-553-09204-9. First of the ‘Mars’ trilogy.

Mars Travel in the Old Days

trip to Mars

Galactic Harbour Associates (GHA) Transitions to Space Elevator Development Corporation (SEDevCo)

Modern Day Space Elevators will be, when fully realized, a permanent transportation infrastructure with many of the features and operational aspects of a major international port or harbor. The Galactic Harbour concept was first articulated by former ISEC Chief Architect, Michael A. (“Fitzer”) Fitzgerald in Architectural Note #5, January 2017. This concept matured through conversations with Vern Hall, bringing his experience as the retired Chief Engineer and Director of Development for the Port of Los Angeles, and Pete Swan.

The “marine node” evolved into the “Earth Port” and contained such elements as the Floating Operations Platform and Tether Terminus Platforms for each Space Elevator location. Following a series of ISEC related studies, papers and presentations, Fitzer and Vern decided to create a corporation that would have as its mission to “conduct the necessary studies, validations, designs and related activities leading to development of the world’s first Space Elevator Earth Port.” GHA was incorporated in California in September 2018. It subsequently became a small business corporate sponsor of ISEC.

One of the first products of GHA’s activities was to further visualize the major components of the Earth Port. The Floating Operations Platform was conceptualized to be a semi-submersible marine structure that had all the features of a floating city, including a Command and Control Center housing the communications for the ultimate operation of the Space Elevator System. The two Tether Terminus Platforms were also conceptualized to be semi-submersible structures located some distance away (say 20 km) from the Operations Platform. Vern also performed a comprehensive location study that factored in the realities of the today’s international supply chain, leading to Earth Port Access City requirements of an existing deep water commercial harbor, an international airport and a modern business climate. These creative concepts have led to the “Green Road to Space” video produced by GHA.

In March 2021, Pete Swan joined the GHA team, while continuing in his role as ISEC Chairman. The focus of GHA’s continuing activities then went far beyond the Earth Port, focusing on future demands for delivering tonnage to space in concert with ever more efficient conventional rocketry (Dual Space Architecture). As Vern postulated, the Space Elevator would become the Z axis (up/down) to GEO and beyond, tying into the existing 2-dimensional world-wide transportation network of moving cargo by ship, train, truck, pipeline and air. The Modern-Day Space Elevator will become the permanent transportation system that has the transformational capability to daily elevate massive cargo payloads into space in a routine, reliable, secure and environmentally responsible manner.

In order to begin the myriad of activities that will be required to bring the Space Elevator to reality, and assuming major funding from a private source was in the offing, steps were taken to create a new company called the Space Elevator Development Corporation (SEDevCo). SEDevCo was incorporated in Delaware in 2023. In 2024, with the untimely passing of GHA’s co-founder, Michael Fitzgerald, Vern and Pete decided to terminate GHA’s activities and move forward with SEDevCo with Pete in the lead role. Vern, for personal reasons, has decided to take an inactive role in future project related activities. GHA was dissolved on August 31, 2024.

As a final work effort, GHA produced the comprehensive 8-page booklet for SEDevCo titled “The Modern-Day Space Elevator” which was successfully distributed to the 1,000 plus attendees at this year’s ISDC sponsored by the National Space Society. This booklet will be available on www.spaceelevatordevco.com and we believe it will serve to kick start SEDevCo’s near-term activities.

[Note: This article has been written in the third person by Vern Hall and Pete Swan.]

Tether Materials

by Adrian Nixon, Board Member, ISEC

Graphene is One Atom Thin, So Why is it More Than Twice the Thickness of a Carbon Atom?  

Dear reader, you may know that I have been acting as a technical adviser for two books that involve the space elevator: a factual book and a science fiction book. This is great fun, but it does raise some interesting challenges. One such challenge came from the science fiction book. The author asked me to do an alpha read to check that the science was correct in the first draft. I approve of accuracy and so I agreed.

I cannot reveal the story, as the book has not yet been published. However, graphene is involved. One of the characters explains to another that the diameter of a carbon atom is 0.14 nanometres (nm). I thought, “Aha!” he has made a mistake because graphene is one atom thin and is 0.335nm thick.

I checked the diameter of a carbon atom in the literature. It is 0.140 nm [1]. The author was correct.

I also re-checked the thickness of graphene using the scientific background to the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics, which explores Andre and Kostya’s work isolating and characterising graphene [2]. The thickness of graphene is indeed 0.335 nm.

Fig 1. The thickness of graphene and the diameter of a carbon atom

So, we have two different values for carbon, both cannot be right, can they?

To resolve this apparent paradox, we need to take a close look at the bonding in graphene.

Fig 2. Bonding within graphene layer and between graphene layers

Graphene is held together by covalent bonds between carbon atoms. These bonds are some of the strongest in nature which is why graphene has such superlative strength.

The bond length between carbon atoms in graphene is well known and is 0.142 nm [3]. The bond length between two atoms of the same material is used to determine the diameter of the atoms. Think about the bond between two atoms as like two solid balls touching. Measuring the distance between the centres of the two balls is like measuring the radius twice. As the radius is half the diameter, this distance is equal to the diameter. Hence, measuring the bond length gives you the diameter of the atom.

This is different when we look at the bond length between layers of graphene. The layers are held together by the van der Waals force. This is a weaker, and longer-range force than the covalent bond. It has been measured at 0.335 nm [2]. In van der Waals bonding, the atoms are not considered to touch in the same way as they do in covalent bonding, and we do not use this value as a measure of the carbon atom diameter.

So, my author friend was correct. The science in his book is well founded. It turns out that graphene is indeed one atom thin, and its thickness is 0.335 nm. A carbon atom diameter is 0,142 nm, approximately 2.3 times smaller than the thickness of graphene. Both statements are correct and there is no paradox because they are based on measuring different types of bonding in graphene.

The science in both books is correct, and we will all look forward to reading them when they are published. The science fact book has the title Rope, and the science fiction book is called Ascending Carbon. They will be good reads when they are published next year. I recommend both to you.

References:

1. Slater, J.C. (1964). Atomic Radii in Crystals. Journal of Chemical Physics, [online] 41(10), pp.3199–3204. doi: https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1725697

2. Anon (2010). Scientific Background on the Nobel Prize in Physics 2010: Graphene. [online] www.nobelprize.org. Sweden: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Available at: https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/advanced-physicsprize2010.pdf. 

3. Yu, W., Sisi, L., Haiyan, Y. and Jie, L. (2020). Progress in the functional modification of graphene/graphene oxide: a review. RSC Advances, 10(26), pp.15328–15345. doi: https://doi.org/10.1039/D0RA01068E

Upcoming Events

75th International Astronautical Congress
Sponsored by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF)
https://www.iafastro.org/events/iac/international-astronautical-congress-2024/
Theme: “Responsible Space for Sustainability”
Monday, October 14th, through Friday, October 18th, 2024
Milan, Italy

21st Reinventing Space Conference
Sponsored by the British Interplanetary Society
https://www.bis-space.com/reinventingspace/
Theme: “The Commercial Revolution”
Monday, November 11th, through Wednesday, November 13, 2024
Royal Aeronautical Society, London, England

Xploration Conference and Expo
By Spaceport Norway
https://www.spaceport-norway.no/
Tuesday, November 12th, through Wednesday, November 13th, 2024
Oslo Event Hub, Oslo, Norway

IPSPACE 2024
https://iaaspace.org/event/international-symposium-on-the-peaceful-use-of-space-technology-health-2024/
Theme: Peaceful Use of Space Technology - Health
Tuesday, December 3rd, through Thursday, December 6th, 2024
Hainan, China

International Space Development Conference 2025
Sponsored by the National Space Society
https://www.isec.org/events/isdc2025
https://isdc.nss.org/
Thursday, June 19, through Sunday, June 22, 2025
Space Elevator Session TBD
Rosen Center, Orlando, FL, United States

76th International Astronautical Congress
Sponsored by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF)
https://www.iac2025.org/
Monday, September 29th, through Friday, October 3rd, 2025
International Convention Centre, Sydney, Australia

77th International Astronautical Congress
Sponsored by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF)
https://iac2026antalya.com/
Theme: “The World Needs More Space”
Proposed Dates: October 5th through October 9th, 2026
Antalya, Turkey

Contact Us:

Our website is www.isec.org.

You can find us on Facebook, X, Flickr, LinkedIn, Instagram, YouTube, Mastodon and Threads.

Support us:

Sign up to be a member at: https://www.isec.org/membership

You can also give directly using the “Donate” link at the bottom of our website page.

Does your place of employment do matching funds for donations or volunteer time through Benevity? If so, you can make ISEC your recipient. Our 501(c)(3) number is 80-0302896.